Health Information

Skin care tips:

The skin is the most sensitive organ of our body. The type of skin normally adds beauty to the concern person. Here are some few tips that provide protection to your precious skin. Some of them are as follows.

Dry brush exfoliation:

A dry brush exfoliation can be done in the morning hours before you take up your bath. This dry exfoliation helps to clear dead skin cells and allows detoxification of skin. This dry brush exfoliation also develops good blood and lymph circulation and thereby reduces the puffiness of the skin. The most important advantage of this exfoliation is that the gentle pressure generated by the brush generates some calmness on your nerves.

Keep your digestion proper:

Good skin is a reflection of the good digestive system. People who suffer from skin disorders such as the acne, rosaceous, psoriasis and pimples are said to have imbalanced digestions in them. The best way to make your digestion proper is the intake of large amount of water and intake of fiber.

Sluggish circulation of the blood:

Another best way of making your skin good is to make your circulation of your blood proper. This circulation of the blood can be made proper by actively participating in many physical activities. Inactivity may affect your skin and produces loss of muscle tone. Do your morning exercises for better circulation of the blood.

Avoiding over sugar:

Excess sugar is one of the main factors that cause premature aging. The more sugar we intake the more sugar enters the blood stream that blocks the circulation which affects our skin.

These are some of the factors that affect our skin and so you yourself make better arrangements for maintaining a good skin.

What is cancer?

Cancer medically is defined as the disease in which a cell group undergoes enormous growth compared with the other cells and sometimes disturbs the growth of other cells which is called as intrusion. The medical term of cancer is malignant neoplasm. Those cells which are affected by cancer are called the tumor cells. The branch of science that deals with the study of cancer is called oncology. Oncology explains the analysis and treatment of cancer.

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In a mature animal, a balance is usually maintained between cell renewal and cell death in most organs and tissues. The various types of mature cells in the body have a given life span; as these cells die; new cells are generated by the proliferation and differentiation of various types of stem cells. Under normal circumstances, the production of new cells is so regulated that the numbers of any particular type of cell remain constant. Occasionally, though, cells arise that are no longer responsive to normal growth-control mechanisms. These cells give rise to clones of cells that can expand to a considerable size, producing a tumor, or neoplasm.

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The lens of the eyeball is crystalline in nature. It is biconvex, transparent and possesses the elastic property. The lens does not have blood supply and receives its nutrition mainly from the aqueous humor. The focal length of human lens is 44mm and its refractory power is 230.

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OLFACTORY RECEPTORS

Olfactory receptors are situated in olfactory mucus membrane, which is the modified mucus membrane lining upper part of nostril. The olfactory mucus membrane consists of 10 to 20 millions of olfactory receptor cells supported by the sustentacular cells. The mucosa also contains mucus secreting Bowman’s glands.

The olfactory receptor cell is a bipolar neuron. The dendrite of this is short. The expanded end of the dendrite is called olfactory rod. From the rod, about 10 to 12 cilia arise. Cilia are non-myelinated with a length of 2 micron and a diameter of 0.1 micron. The cilia project to the surface of olfactory mucus membrane.

The mucus secreted by Bowman’s glands continuously lines the olfactory mucosa. This mucus contains some proteins, which increase the actions of odoriferous substances on receptor cells.

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Prostate Cancer:

Prostate cancer is the most general disease which is in prostate. It affects only men. In the reproductive system of men, prostate is a gland. There are various types of cell in the prostate, prostate cancer appears when the cells starts to grow and spread in a uncontrolled manner.

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General description of the eyeball

Morphology

Human eyeball (bulbus oculi) is approximately globe shaped with a diameter of about 24mm. It is slightly flattened from above downwards. Eyeball is made up of two segments, an anterior part and a posterior part. Anterior part is small and forms 1/6 of the eyeball. The posterior part is larger and forms 5/6 of the eyeball. The radius of this is about 8mm. The posterior wall of this part is lined by the light sensitive structure called retina.

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What is UTO ?(urinary tract obstruction)

Luto happens when there is a partial or complete obstruction in the area of urinary tract , the area between kidney to the urethra. If this happen it may result in severe kidney damage.

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Systolic murmur is produced in the following conditions

Incompetence of Atrioventricular Valves

When the atrioventricular valves become weak, these valves cannot close completely. This causes regurgitation of blood from ventricles to the atria during ventricular systole producing the murmur. It is a harsh blowing sound with high frequency.

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Maintaining the reading frame during translation is central to the accuracy and fidelity of translation. However, many retroviruses, including HIV, the human immunodeficiency virus that causes AIDS, take advantage of mRNA slippage and a change in reading frame to generate different proteins from the same message.

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In the past, evolutionary studies of species have depended soley on anatomical changes observed in fossil records and on carbon dating. More recently, these studies are being suported by the molecular analysis of the sequence and size of selected genes or whole DNA molecules. Evolutionary altertions of a selected DNA molecule from different species can rapidly be assessed by restriction endonuclease mapping. Generation of restriction endonuclease maps requires a pure preparation of DNA. Mammalian mitochondria contain a covalently closed circular DNA molecule of 16,569 base pair that can rapidly be purified from cells. The mitochondrial DNA can be employed directly for the study of evolutionary changes in DNA without the need of cloning a specific gene.

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Polymerase Chain Reaction and Screening for Human Immunodeficiency Virus

The use of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify minute quantities of DNA has revolutionized the ability to detect and analyze DNA species. With PCR it is possible to synthesize sufficient DNA for analysis. Conventional methods for detection and identification of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), such as Southern blot-DNA hybridization and antigen analysis, are labor intensive and expensive and have low sensitivity. An infected individual, with no sign of AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), may test false negative for HIV by these procedures. Early detection of HIV infections in these individuals is crucial to initiate treatment and/or monitor the progression of their disease. In addition, a sensitive method is required to be certain that blood contributed by donors does not contain HIV. PCR amplication of potential HIV DNA sequences within DNA isolated from an individual’s white blood cells permits the identification of viral infections prior to appearance of antibodies, the so-called seronegative state. Current methods are too costly to apply this testing to large-scale screening of donor blood samples. PCR can also be used to increase the sensitivity to detect and characterize DNA sequences of any other human infectious pathogen.

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In patients with malignant hyperthermia, a variety of agents, especially, the widely used general anesthetic halothane, will produce a dramatic rise in body temperature, metabolic and respiratory acidosis, hyperkalemia, and muscle rigidity. This genetic abnormality occurs in about 1 in 15,000 children and 1 in 50,000-100,000 older peoples. It is dominantly inherited. Death may result the first time a susceptible person is anesthetized. Onset occurs within minutes of medicine exposure and the hyperthermia must be recognized immediately. Packing the patient in ice is effective and should be accompanied by measures to combat acidosis. The medicine dantrolene is also effective.

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Cytochrome P450 forms play a major role in estrogen synthesis. During pregnancy, a unique interaction among cytochrome P450 forms in different organs is needed in order to synthesize the large quantities that are required. Hormone production increases dramatically during pregnancy and, at term, the pregnant woman produces 15-20mg of estradiol, 50-100 mg of estriol, and approximately 250 mg of progesterone per 24-h period. The amount of estrogen synthesized during pregnancy far exceeds the amount synthesized by nonpregnant women. For example, the pregnant woman at the end of gestation produces 1000 times more estrogen than premenopausal women per day.

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The amount of energy required for any individual varies directly with the degree of activity and environmental conditions, but the rate of energy production in an individual by its over-all cellular metabolism is more or less constant under some standard conditions “basal conditions” and is known as “basal metabolism”.

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In worldwide terms nutritional disorders are responsible for much morbidity and mortality. The three main categories of nutritional disorders are under nutrition (which is dominated by insufficient food energy), producing the features of starvation, malnutrition, which is deficiency, of one or more of the essential nutrients; and obesity, which is excessive positive energy balance. Disease is also possible as a result of nutrient excess

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The incidence of pancreatic carcinoma is increasing tremendously. Increasing evidence suggests that it may result from exposure to chemical carcinogens. Lowest socioeconomic classes and people in urban regions develop more. Individuals of either male or female who smoke one to two packs of cigarette per day have a two to three folds increased risk of developing this cancer.

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In order of increasing frequency, the following are the commonest causes of nipple discharge in the non lactating breast: carcinoma, intraductal papilloma, and mammary dysplasia with ectasia of the ducts. The important characteristics of the discharge and some other factors to be evaluated by history and physical examination are as follows:

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This common benign neoplasm occurs most frequently in young women, usually within 20 years after puberty. It is somewhat more frequent and tends to occur at an earlier age in black than in white women. Multiple tumors in one or both breasts are found in 10-15% of patients.

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Mammary Dysplasia (Fibrocystic Disease)

Essential of Diagnosis

• Painful, often multiple, usually bilateral masses in the breast.
• Rapid fluctuation in the size of the masses is common.
• Frequently, pain occurs or increases and size increases during premenstrual phase of cycle.
• Most common age is 30-50. Rare in post menopausal women. Read complete articles »

Essentials of diagnosis

• Obstructive jaundice (may be painless).
• Enlarged gallbladder (may be painful).
• Upper abdominal pain with radiation to back, weight loss, and thrombophlebitis are usually late manifestations. Read complete articles »

Chronic pancreatitis occurs most often in patients with alcoholism, hereditary pancreatitis, severe malnutrition or untreated hyperparathyroidism, or it may be idiopathic. Progressive fibrosis and destruction of functioning glandular tissue occur as a result. Pancreaticolithiasis and obstruction of the duodenal end of the pancreatic duct are often present. (Acute pancreatitis recurring after cholecystectomy for cholelithiasis should raise the suspicion of a retained or newly developed common duct stone.)

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Acute Pancreatitis

Essentials of Diagnosis
• Abrupt onset of deep epigastric pain, often with radiation to the back.
• Nausea, vomiting, sweating, weakness
• Abdominal tenderness and distention, fever.
• Leukocytosis, elevated serum amylase, elevated serum lipase.
• History of previous episodes, often related to alcohol intake.

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I-cell disease (mucolipidosis 2) and pseudo-Hurler polydystrophy (mucolipidosis 3) are related diseases that arise from defects in Lysosomal enzyme targeting because of a deficiency in the enzyme that transfers N-acetyglucosamine phosphate to the high-mannose type oligosaccharides of proteins destined for the lysosome.

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Intravesical chemotherapy

Immuno or chemotherapeutic agents can be delivered directly into the bladder by a urethral catheter. They can be used to eradicate existing disease or to reduce the likelihood of recurrence in those who have undergone complete transurethral resection. Such therapy is more effective in the latter situation. Most agents are administered weekly for 6-12 weeks. The use of maintenance therapy after the initial induction regimen may be beneficial. Efficacy may be increased by prolonging contact time to 2 hours. Common agents include thiotepa, mitomycin, doxorubicin and BCG, the latter being the most effective agent when compared with the others. Side effects of Intravesical chemotherapy include Irritative voiding symptoms and hemorrhagic cystitis. Systemic effects are rare. Patients who develop symptoms from BCG may require antituberculous therapy.

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For the right diagnosis of a particular disease, it is always better to estimate a few (three or more) serum enzymes, instead of a single enzyme. Examples of enzyme patterns in important diseases are given here.

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Primary tumors of the kidney

Renal cell carcinoma

Essentials of diagnosis

• Gross or microscopic hematuria
• Flank pain or mass in some patients.
• Systemic symptoms such as fever, weight loss may be prominent
• Solid renal mass on imaging Read complete articles »

Although nitric oxide is essential in tumoricidal and bactericidal functions of macrophages, overproduction of nitric oxide has been implicated in septic/cytokine-induced circulatory shock in humans through the activation of guanylate cyclase. This mechanism is responsible for profound hypotension in postoperative patients whose recovery is complicated by bacterial infections that produce endotoxins. Hypotension in these patients is often refractory to treatment with conventional vasoconstrictor medicines. Therapeutic intervention by NOS inhibitors is being examined in inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, such as pancreatitis and ulcerative colitis, and in arthritis.

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Essentials of diagnosis

• Irritative voiding symptoms.
• Gross or microscopic hematuria.
• Positive urinary cytology in most patients.
• Filling defect within bladder noted on imaging. Read complete articles »

Symptoms and signs

Most prostatic cancers are detected in asymptomatic men who are found to have focal nodules or areas of induration within the prostate at the time of digital rectal examination.

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Essentials of diagnosis

• Prostatic indurations on digital rectal examination or elevation of PSA.
• Most often asymptomatic.
• Systemic symptoms (weight loss, bone pain) in 20% of patients. Read complete articles »

Stress tests, or graded exercise tests, are conducted primarily to aid in diagnosing or quantifying heart or lung disease and to evaluate the functional capacity asymptomatic individuals. The tests are usually given on motorized treadmills or bicycle ergometers (stationary, variable-resistance bicycles). Workload intensity (how hard the subject is working) is adjusted by progressively increasing the speed and the incline of the treadmill or by progressively increasing the pedaling frequency and resistance on the bicycle. The test starts at a low intensity and continues until a prespecified workload is achieved, physiologic symptoms occur, or the subject is too fatigued to continue.

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A group of cells having the same origin, similar shape and specific or common generalized function is known as a tissue. The tissues are classified into four major groups. They are epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue, nervous tissue. These four groups of tissues are called elementary tissues.

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Chromatography is one of the most useful and popular tools of biochemistry. It is an analytical technique dealing with the separation of closely related compounds from a mixture. These include proteins, peptides, amino acids, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins and medicines.

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Flow Cytometry has numerous applications and as in case of PCR it might be said that the applications of flow Cytometry are limited only by our own imagination. A detailed discussion of these applications is impossible her. However, major well documented applications have been cursorily dealt with.

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Many authorities recommend screening asymptomatic individuals by measuring plasma cholesterol. A level less than 200 mg% is considered desirable, and a level over 240 mg% requires lipoprotein analysis, especially determination of LDL cholesterol. Reduction of LDL cholesterol depends on dietary restriction of cholesterol to less than 300mg day -1, of calories to attain ideal body weight, and of total fat intake to less than 30% of total calories. Approximately two-thirds of the fat should be mono- or polyunsaturated. The second line of therapy is with medicines. Cholestyramine and colestipol are bile salt-binding medicines that promote excretion of bile salts in the stool. This in turn increases the rate of hepatic bile salt synthesis and of LDL uptake by the liver. Lovastatin is an inhibitor of HMG CoA reductase. Since this enzyme is limiting for cholesterol synthesis, lovastatin decreases endogenous synthesis of cholesterol and stimulates uptake of LDL via the receptor. The combination of lovastatin and Cholestyramine is sometimes used for severe hyperlipidemia.

There is numerous application of PCR and since the techniques is comparatively recent, new applications are being added with an amazing speed. We will not discuss the applications which are common and which can easily be imagined by the reader. Instead some of the novel applications of PCR are discussed in this section.

PCR in cancer research

Since clinical markers of predictive value are not available for cancers, PCR is not yet of much diagnostic value for this human malady. However, PCR is being tremendously used to gain insights into the molecular basis of cancer.

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Traditional laboratory tests for the diagnosis of genetic diseases are mostly based on the estimation of metabolites and/or enzymes. This is usually done after the onset of symptoms.

The laboratory tests based on DNA analysis can specifically diagnose the inherited diseases at the genetic level. DNA-based tests are useful to discover, well in advance, whether the individuals or their offsprings are at risk for any genetic disease. Further, such tests can also be employed for the prenatal diagnosis of hereditary disorders, besides identifying the carriers of genetic diseases.

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Polymerase chain reaction and screening for human immunodeficiency virus

The use of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify minute quantities of DNA has revolutionized the ability to detect and analyze DNA species. With PCR it is possible to synthesize sufficient DNA for analysis. Conventional methods for detection and identification of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), such as Southern blot-DNA hybridization and antigen analysis, are labor intensive and expensive and have low sensitivity. An infected individual, with no sign of aids, may test false negative for HIV by these procedures. Early detection of HIV infections in these individual is crucial to initiate treatment and/or monitor the progression of their disease. In addition, a sensitive method is required to be certain that blood contributed by donors does not contain HIV. PCR amplification of potential HIV DNA sequences within DNA isolated from an individual’s white blood cells permits the identification of viral infections prior to appearance of antibodies, the so-called seronegative state. Current methods are too costly to apply this testing to large-scale screening of donor blood samples. PCR can also be used to increase the sensitivity to detect and characterize DNA sequences of any other human infectious pathogen.

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The use of DNA analysis is a novel and revolutionary approach for specifically identifying the disease-causing pathogenic organisms. This is in contrast to the traditional methods of disease diagnosis by detection of enzymes, antibodies etc., besides the microscopic examination of pathogens. Although at present not in widespread use, DNA analysis may soon take over the traditional diagnostic tests in the years to come. Diagnosis of selected diseases by genetically engineered techniques or DNA probes or direct DNA analysis is briefly described.

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Defects in mismatch repair cause hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC) and probably are important in other cancers. This was initially suggested by the finding that some colon tumors showed frequent mutations in microsatellites (short repeating sequences, particularly mono- and dinucleotides), a phenotype called microsatellite instability.

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Unexplained weight loss may be a sign of malignancy, and weight loss is common in advanced cancer. Decreased appetite and food intake contribute to but do not entirely account for the weight loss. The weight loss is largely from skeletal muscle and adipose tissue, with relative sparing of c (i.e., liver, kidney, and heart). Although tumors commonly exhibit high rates of glycolysis and release lactate, the energy requirement of the tumor probably does not explain weight loss because weight loss can occur with even small tumors. In addition, the presence of another energy-requiring growth, the fetus in a pregnant woman, does not normally lead to weight loss. Several endocrine abnormalities have been recognized in cancer patients. They tend to be insulin-resistant, have higher cortisol levels, and have a higher basal metabolic rate compared with controls matched for weight loss. Two other phenomena may contribute to the metabolic disturbances.

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Breast carcinoma is moderately sensitive to multiple antitumor agents and combinations of medicines produce higher response rates and longer durations of response and survival than single-agent therapy. Within the past decade a number of new agents have been developed and proved effective in the treatment of breast cancer. The most prominent are the taxanes, including paclitaxel and docetaxel. These taxanes are currently being used in combination with other active medicines including the anthracyclines, cisplatin and its analogs, alkylating agents, antimetabolites, Vinca alkaloids, and anti-estrogens. Recent advances in our understanding of the basic biology of breast carcinoma, including the internal and external stimuli that result in malignant transformation, progression, transformation, and metastasis, have provided additional potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

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Cancer is defined as the excessive division of cells. It is recognized pathologically by a higher fraction of cells actively in the cell cycle than is expected for the normal tissue from which it arose. This includes a higher fraction of cells in mitosis, recognizable by microscopy, and a higher fraction of cells in S-phase.

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Coomassie brilliant blue Staining

This is the most often used protein stain. It is extremely sensitive and becomes even more sensitive in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulphate. It can be carried out by two variants of what is principally one single method.

The first step is to fix the separated proteins. This is achieved by soaking the gels overnight in about 10-12 volumes of 20% sulphasalicyclic acid. This step is followed by staining where the gels are allowed to soak in an aqueous solution of Coomassie blue (0.25%). There is no fixed period for staining. However, higher percentage gels require higher periods of staining. Thus, while 2 hours are sufficient for 5% acrylamide gels, more than 4 hours are required for staining 10% acrylamide gels. Excess stain is removed by washing the gel with successive volumes of 7% acetic acid.

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Hyperlipidemias are disorders of the rates of synthesis or clearance of lipoproteins from the bloodstream. Usually they are detected by measuring plasma triacylglycerol and cholesterol and are classified on the basis of which class of lipoproteins is elevated.

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In general, gene therapy is carried out by introducing a therapeutic gene to produce the defective or the lacking protein. But there are certain disorders (cancer, viral and parasitic infections, and inflammatory diseases) which result in an overproduction of certain normal proteins. It is possible to treat these diseases by blocking transcription using a single-stranded nucleotide sequence that hybridizes with the specific gene, and this is called antigene therapy. Antisense therapy refers to the inhibition of translation by using a single-stranded nucleotide. Further, it is also possible to inhibit both transcription and translation by blocking the transcription factor responsible for the specific gene expression.

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DNA chips or DNA microarrays are recent developments for DNA sequencing as result of advances made in automation and miniarization. A large number of DNA probes, each one with different sequence, are immobilized at defined positions on the solid surface, made up of either nylon or glass. The probes can be short DNA molecules such as cDNAs or synthetic Oligonucleotides.

For the preparation of high density arrays, Oligonucleotides are synthesized in situ on the surface of glass or silicon. This results in an Oligonucleotide chip rather than a DNA chip.

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Some groups of research workers have developed alternate methods to Sanger method for sequencing of DNA. Unfortunately, despite the initial excitement, most of these methods have disappeared from the scene. There are at least two methods with some promise for DNA sequencing pyrosequencing, and gene chips (microarrays).

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It is expected that the sequencing of human genome and the genomes of other organisms will dramatically change our understanding and perceptions of biology and medicine. Some of the benefits of human genome project are given.

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The most important features of a DNA molecule are the nucleotide sequences, and the identification of genes and their activities. Since 1920, scientists have been working to determine the sequences of pieces of DNA. This was further extended for the complete sequence determination of genome of certain lower organism’s example plasmid pBR 322 in 1979. The mitochondrial genome was sequenced in 1981.

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Determination of nucleotide sequence in a DNA molecule is the basic and fundamental requirement in biotechnology. DNA sequencing is important to understand the functions of genes, and basis of inherited disorders. Further, DNA cloning and gene manipulation invariably require knowledge of accurate nucleotide sequence.

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Blotting techniques are very widely used analytical tools for the specific identification of desired DNA or RNA fragments from thousands of molecules. Blotting refers to the process of immobilization of sample nucleic acids or solid support. The blotted nucleic acids are then used as targets in the hybridization experiments for their specific detection.

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In 1937 Tiselius described his moving boundary electrophoresis; Konig published the first experiment on the use of filter paper as stabilizing medium in electrophoresis. It, however, took ten more years for filter paper electrophoresis to become popular as an efficient, inexpensive, routine technique. This paved the way for several other porous stabilizing media, most of which are gels such as agar, starch, and polyacrylamide. Zone electrophoresis is the name given to the separation technique employing these stabilizing media. It is also known as electrophoresis in stabilized media. A great advantage o f this analytical tool lies in the fact that a few microlitres of sample are often quite sufficient for a complete electrophoretic separation. Upon separation the molecules are immobilized by fixation in different zones. The molecules are then detected by staining them on the supporting medium. Other methods to detect the separated molecules are visualization by ultraviolet light, detection by virtue of enzymic reaction, or detection by radioactivity, if the molecules are radiolabelled. Alternatively, the separated components can be eluted from the medium and thus become available for further studies. Zone electrophoresis can also be utilized as large-scale or preparative method whereby large amounts of a component can be purified for further characterization.

Separation of large chromosomes of eukaryotes is not possible by conventional electrophoresis. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting, also known as flow cytometry or flow karyotyping, can separate the individual chromosomes of eukaryotes.

Fluorescence-activated cell sorting

To carry out FACS, the dividing cells are carefully broken open, and a mixture of intact chromosomes is prepared. These chromosomes are then stained with a fluorescent dye. The quantity of the dye that binds to a chromosome depends on its size. Thus, larger chromosomes bind more dye and fluoresce more brightly than the smaller ones.

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Electrophoresis can be divided into two main techniques: free electrophoresis or electrophoresis without stabilizing media and zone electrophoresis or electrophoresis in stabilizing media.

Free electrophoresis

Free electrophoresis has two main techniques: microelectrophoresis and moving boundary electrophoresis. Both the techniques have now become obsolete and are at best of historical significance.

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Both pig (porcine) and cow (bovine) insulin are commonly used in the treatment of human diabetics. Because of the differences in amino acid sequence from the human insulin, some diabetic individuals will have an initial allergic response to the injected insulin as their immunological system recognizes the insulin as foreign, or develop an insulin resistance due to a high anti-insulin antibody titer at a later stage in treatment. However, the number of diabetics who have a deleterious immunological response to pig and cow insulin is small; the great majority of human diabetics can utilize the nonhuman insulin’s without immunological complication. The compatibility of cow and pig insulin in humans is due to the small number and the conservative nature of the changes between the amino acid sequences of the insulin. These changes do not significantly perturb the three dimensional structure of the insulin from that of human insulin. Pig insulin is usually more acceptable than cow insulin in insulin-reactive individuals because it is more similar in sequence to human insulin. Human insulin is now available for clinical use. It can be made using genetically engineered bacteria or by modifying pig insulin.

Almost all the experiments dealing with gene manipulations require pure forms of either DNA or RNA, or sometimes even both. Hence there is a need for the reliable isolation of nucleic acids from the cells. The purification of nucleic acids broadly involves three stages.

1. Breaking or opening of the cells to expose nucleic acids.
2. Separation of nucleic acids from other cellular components.
3. Recovery of nucleic acids in a pure form.

Analytical procedures involving a few steps to several steps are in use for the purification of nucleic acids. In fact, commercial kits are readily available these days to enable purification of either DNA or RNA from different sources. Read complete articles »

Electrophoresis refers to the movement of charged molecules in an electric field. The negatively charged molecules move towards the positive electrode while the positively charged molecules migrate towards the negative electrodes.

Gel electrophoresis is a routinely used analytical technique for the separation/purification of specific DNA fragments. The gel is composed of either polyacrylamide or agarose. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) is used for the separation of smaller DNA fragments while agarose electrophoresis is convenient for the separation of DNA fragments ranging in size from 100 base pairs to 20 kb pairs. Gel electrophoresis can also be used for the separation of RNA molecules.

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In this Pulse Field Gel Electrophoresis technique, electric field is applied alternatively at definite period of time pulse (60 sec pulse).

Principle

DNA molecules are very long molecules. When electric field is applied these molecules stretch out to become a linear molecule before they migrate to the gel. When the direction is changed the smaller molecules realign and move faster compared to longer ones. Separation of long strands of DNA based on their charge by mass ratio on an agarose gel in the presence of alternating electric fields. This technique depends on differential stretching and relaxing of a large DNA molecule.

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Principle

Separation of negatively charged nucleic acid molecules based on their charged by mass ratio on agarose gel in the presence of an electric field.

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Topoisomerases are emerging as important targets of antimicrobial and antineoplastic agents. These agents share a common principal mechanism of action by interfering with the enzyme-catalyzed rejoining of DNA strands, in effect inhibiting one of two substeps in the action of Topoisomerases. Therefore topoisomerase medicines do not inhibit overall activity of the enzyme, as is the case with most enzyme targeting medicines. Instead, they trap the immediate complex between topoisomerase and DNA. This may result in degradation of DNA, introduction of mutation, of inhibition of translation and replication.

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The presence of reiterated three-base-pair DNA sequences has been noted in a number of human genetic diseases including fragile X syndrome, myotonic dystrophy, X-linked spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (Kennedy’s syndrome), spinocerebellar ataxia, and Huntington’s disease. These diseases are associated with expansion of certain triplet nucleotide repeats that appear to be over represented in the human genome. Repeats can be present in different locations near or within the associated gene. In all cases, expansion of the triplet interferes with normal functioning of the protein. In many cases, a loss of protein function occurs, but in some cases, the gain of a deleterious function occurs.

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Telomerase, the ends of linear Eukaryotic chromosomes, are critical for maintaining the stability of the genome. Telomeres are progressively shortened during each cycle of cell division. Upon reaching a critical length, programmed cell death (apoptosis) occurs. Ribonucleoprotein Telomerase acts to maintain or lengthen the Telomeres but is not active in normal somatic cells. Telomerase activity has been detected in most tumor cell lines and may be responsible for their immortalization, and increased Telomerase activity in rumors can be correlated to poorer clinical prognoses. Thus this enzyme is an attractive target for anticancer chemotherapies.

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A number of diseases result from abnormalities in lipid metabolism. They are due to genetic defects affecting one of the enzymes necessary for their catabolism.

Acyl CoA dehydrogenase deficiency:

The most common genetic defect in lipid metabolism is an acyl CoA dehydrogenase deficiency. There are four different isoenzymes of acyl CoA dehydrogenase and each acts on fatty acids of different chain lengths. The most common deficiencies are the long and medium –chain specific enzymes. Mitochondrial beta-oxidation of fatty acids proceeds in these patients until encountering the step that is catalyzed by the defective acyl CoA dehydrogenase isoenzymes. The catabolic process stops at this point. The accumulated fatty acids are converted to dicarboxylic acid due to omega oxidation. The chain length of the dicarboxylic acid formed depends on the acyl CoA dehydrogenase that is deficient. Accumulation of dicarboxylic acid in the plasma produces dicarboxylic academia and metabolic acidosis. It often leads to death in childhood.

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Abnormal amounts of glycogen are deposited in various diseases due to inherited deficiencies of the enzymes involved in glycogen metabolism. In addition to this they produce deleterious effects on the growth and well being of the individual. The details of different types of glycogen storage diseases are given below:

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Hexokinase (HK) deficiency:

Hexokinase catalyses the first chemical reaction in glycolysis and it exits as isoenzymes. A genetic defect of HK leads to low concentrations of glycolytic intermediates, including 1,3-BPG, the precursor of 2,3-BPG, which binds to hemoglobin and lowers its affinity for oxygen. This effect allows hemoglobin to release oxygen normally in tissue capillaries. Patients with defective HK activity possess low levels of 2,3-BPG and their hemoglobin has an abnormally high oxygen affinity. This leads to hemolytic anemia finally.

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Hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin (HPFH) is a group of conditions in which fetal hemoglobin synthesis is not turned off with development but continues into older stage. The homozygous form of the disease is extremely uncommon, being characterized by changes in red blood cells similar to those found in heterozygous beta thalassemia. HPFH, in either the homozygous or heterozygous state, is associated with mild clinical or hematologic abnormalities. Mild musculoskeletal pains may occur infrequently, but HPFH patients are generally a symptomatic.

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The local three-dimensional structure of DNA is important in interactions with proteins involved in repair, transcription, recombination, and chromatin condensation. Recently, it has been proposed that antibiotics can induce formation of DNA structures that can recruit these proteins with cytotoxic results. The best-studied example of this phenomenon is the antitumor medicine cisplation, a tetra coordinate platinum complex [cis-Pt (NH2) 2Cl2]. Cisplatin is used alone or in combination with other antitumor agents to treat a variety of tumors including testicular, ovarian, bone, and lung cancers. This platinum complex forms inter- and intrastrand cross-links in double-stranded DNA with the latter adduct comprising 90% of DNA lesions. These bonds arise from displacement of chloride ligands on platinum by N-7 atoms of two neighboring guanines. Structural studies on intrastrand cross-linked DNA adducts show that the double helix is strongly bent toward the major groove.

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With pending completion of the human genome project, a wealth of genetic information is rapidly becoming available. Application of this knowledge to medicine requires development of new techniques to monitor gene expression and rapidly evaluate genes for mutations and other sequence variations. Oligonucleotide arrays have shown great promise for these applications. Such arrays consist of a number of gene-specific Oligonucleotide probes immobilized at specific sites on a solid matrix. (Chip). Arrays can contain thousands of unique probe molecules, each fixed within an “address”. Gene chips can then be treated with labeled target nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) derived from cells of an organism. Hybridization of the targets with complementary probe sequences allows for immobilization of the label at specific sites on the chip. In this way, the presence of specific sequences can be determined and the amount of labeled target hybridized to a site can be quantitated, allowing for determination of amount of each target in a sample.

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Peroxisomes are responsible for a number of important metabolic reactions, including synthesis of glycerol ethers, shortening very-long-chain fatty acids so that mitochondrial can completely oxidize them, and oxidation of the side chain of cholesterol needed for bile acids synthesis.

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Clinical correlation

Human Lysosomal acid lipase (hLAL) hydrolyzes triacylglycerol to free fatty acids and glycerol, and cholesteryl esters to free cholesterol and fatty acids. It is a critical enzyme in cholesterol metabolism, serving to make available free cholesterol for the needs of cells. Cholesteryl ester storage disease (CESD) and Wolman’s disease are two distinct phenotypic forms of a genetic deficiency of hLAL; both are rare autosomal recessive diseases. Cholesteryl ester storage disease is usually diagnosed in elder person and is evidenced by hypercholesterolemia, hepatomegaly, and early onset of severe atherosclerosis. Affected individuals express hLAL activity but at a very low level (less than 5% normal). Apparently this level is sufficient to hydrolyze triacylglycerol but not cholesteryl esters. Analysis of the gene for the enzyme indicates that a mutation has occurred on both alleles at a splice junction leading to a catalytically defective and unstable enzyme.

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Catabolism of purines, nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds found in nucleic acids, leads to formation of uric acid, which is excreted in urine normally. Gout is an abnormality in which uric acid is produced in excess, leading to an increase of uric acid in blood and deposition of urate crystals in joints.

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Introduction

Traditional procedures of vaccination have used purified components of an infectious organism, dead or attenuated intact cells or viruses, to provide individuals with active immunity by eliciting production of specific antibodies. Many have been successful in providing protection against diseases such as polio, smallpox, whooping cough, typhoid fever, and diphtheria.

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Apoptosis: programmed cell death

Eukaryotic cells have genetically regulated mechanisms for programmed cell death, termed apoptosis. Programmed cell death is important during embryogenesis and throughout older life and occurs when a cell has fulfilled its biological function. It is distinct from necrotic death of a cell caused by injury due to radiation or anoxia. Initiation of apoptosis has three phases an initiation signal, activation of a cascade of reactions involving protein factors, and activation of specific proteolytic enzymes.

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Electrophoretic analysis of the plasma proteins is commonly used in diagnosis of disease. Electrophoresis of plasma buffered at pH 8.6 separate the major plasma proteins as they migrate to an anode in the electric field into bands or peaks, based on their charge differences.

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Introduction

The endocrine system consists of ductless glands, which secrete hormones. The hormones are directly poured into circulation without the help of a duct. Hormone is the secretion of an endocrine gland, which is transported to a site distant from its origin where it produces it action.

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Introduction

Lymphatic system is a closed system of lymph channels or lymph vessels through which lymph flows. It is a one-way system and allows the lymph flow from tissue spaces towards the blood.

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Normal blood volume

The total amount of blood present in the circulatory system, blood reservoirs, organs and tissues together constitute blood volume. In a normal young healthy person male weighing about 70 kg, the blood volume is about 5 liters. It is about 7% of total body weight. It ranges between 6 and 8% of body weight. In relation to the body surface area, the blood volume is 2.8 to 3.1 liters per square meter.

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Introduction

Platelets or thrombocytes are small colourless, nonnucleated and moderately refractive bodies. Theses formed elements of blood are considered to be the fragments of cytoplasm. Their diameter is 2.5 microns and the volume is 7.5 cubic microns. Normally the platelets are spherical or rod shaped and become oval or disc shaped when inactivated. Sometimes, the platelets are of dumb bell, comma, cigar or any other unusual shape.

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Structure of spleen

Spleen is the largest lymphoid organ in the body and it is highly vascular. It is situated in left hypochondrial region. An outer serous coat and an inner fibro muscular capsule cover the spleen. From the capsule, the trabeculae and trabecular network arise. All the three structures capsule, trabeculae and trabecular network contain collagen fibers, elastic fibers, smooth muscle fibers and reticular cells. The parenchyma of spleen is arranged in the form of red pulp and white pulp.

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Introduction

Normally, the red blood cells remain suspended uniformly in circulation. This is called suspension stability of red blood cells. If blood is mixed with an anticoagulant and allowed to stand on a vertical tube, the red cells settle down due to gravity with a supernatant layer of clear plasma. The rate at which the cells settle down is called Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate.

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Introduction

Removal of waste materials and toxic substances and restoration of normal volume and composition of body fluid by means of an artificial kidney is called dialysis or hemodialysis.

Artificial Kidney

Severe dysfunction of kidney is treated by dialysis of patient’s blood. A machine called artificial kidney carries out dialysis. The artificial kidney is used in acute renal failure due to circulatory shock or mercury poisoning. It is also used in chronic or permanent renal failure.

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Introduction

Diuretics are the substances, which enhance the output of urine. These substance increase excretion of water, sodium and chloride through urine. The diuretics agents increase the urine formation by influencing any of the processes involved in urine formation.

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Lactation refers to synthesis, secretion and ejection of milk. It consists of two processes milk secretion and milk ejection.

Milk secretion

Synthesis of milk by alveolar epithelium and its passage through the duct system is called milk secretion. This process has two phases initiation of milk secretion or lactogenesis and maintenance of milk secretion or galactopoiesis.

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Development of mammary glands during pregnancy

During pregnancy, the mammary glands enlarge to a great extent and, there are marked changes in structure. During first half of pregnancy, the duct system develops further with appearance of many new alveoli. The gland secretes no milk now. During the second half, there is enormous growth of glandular tissues and the development is completed for the production of milk just before the end of gestation period.

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Introduction

The presence of hCG can be determined by using immunological techniques. The immunological tests are based on double antigen antibody reaction. The most commonly performed immunological test is known as Gravindes test.

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Introduction

The pregnancy test is a test to determine the presence of the human chorionic gonadotropin hormone in the urine of woman suspected for pregnancy. Biological tests are available to test the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin hormone in the urine of the pregnant woman.

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Need for Health insurance?

Do your Homework and take Health insurance.

Before taking a health insurance on any company for that matter you need to take more attention the money you spend for insurance is invaluable that’s why you need to take more caution before investing your money on health insurance providers. Check the track record of the company, how long its there and how many members have insured in their company these minor details will help a lot and also don’t go with the attitude that an health insurance will only take care of your future expenses.

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Introduction

The celiac disease is a disease when the mucous membrane lining in small intestine is slightly damaged this is due to intake of oats, wheat, barley, and rye. The celiac disease is caused mainly due to the intolerance of gluten. This leads to lack of nutrients absorption results in human growth failure. Celiac disease is mainly seen in the case of children who are short and thin.

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Principle

This technique combines the technique of IEF, which separates proteins in a mixture according to charge isoelectric point, with the size separation technique of SDS-PAGE. When combined to give 2D PAGE, the most sophisticated analytical method for separating proteins available is obtained.

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Gel preparation of Isoelectric focusing gel electrophoresis

The carrier ampholytes, riboflavin and acrylamide solution with covering suitable pH range mixture is poured over a glass plate (25×10cm) that contains a spacer. The 2nd glass plate is then placed on top of the first to form gel cassette. Gel is polymerized by photo polymerization by placing the gel in bright light for 2-3 hrs. Once the gel is set potential difference is applied when ampholytes form a pH gradient between anode and cathode. 4% polyacrylamide gels are commonly used; agarose can also be used specially for the study of high molecular weight protein. That may undergo some sieving at low % acrylamide gel.

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Principle

Isoelectric focusing gel electrophoresis is a separation of amphoteric substance such as protein, amino acids and peptides based on their different isoelectric point on supporting medium using electricity.

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Introduction

Separation of protein is carried out using cross-linked polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. This is due to molecular sieving property of polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis that slows the migration of protein according to their molecular weight. Proteins were originally separated on polyacrylamide gels that were polymerized in a glass tubes, approximately 7 mm in diameter and about 10cm in length. SDS- polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis is the most widely used method for analysis of protein mixtures qualitatively. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis is used for monitoring protein purification. As the separation of protein is according to size the method can also be used to determine the relative molecular mass of protein.

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Cord blood is a human Blood present in the blood vessels at the time of delivery .The blood vessels contain pair of umbilical arteries and one umbilical vein. The blood between the foetus and placenta is carried by these blood vessels. The umbilical cord blood is rich in haematopoietic stem cells. The cord blood is collected after the umbilical cord has been removed from the newborn infants. The cord blood is used as a source for the stem cells transplantation.

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In Christmas the body gets extra amounts of fats and lifestyle becomes unhealthy. By doing physical exercise routinely day by day, we can improve your overall health. If you are doing the exercise five times in a week before Christmas you can do the exercise three times per week. Drinking, consumption of alcohol, and smoking during Christmas holidays should be avoided. Go for the dark beer and red wine because they are calories based drinks. While drinking alcohol you should add a little amount of water this help in the fast digestion. In winter the cold illness is the major health problems. The recent studies shown that most of the Americans gains 8 to 14 pounds during the Christmas holidays.

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This disease is caused because of prolonged breast-feeding with inadequate supplement of other foods. And also because of artificial feeds which is less nutritive in protein and calories. Sometimes because of less feeding due to the fear of diarrhea, this disease may occur. Marasumus is usually seen in infants less than one year.

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Luft’s Diseases

In 1962 Luft’s diseases was introduced in mitochondrial energy transduction. Increases in BMR (basal metabolic rate), inspite of taking high caloric food the person body weight does’nt get increased these are the general symptoms of Luft’s diseases. The Luft’s diseases are widely seen in the patients who those have defects in the mechanism of mitochondrial oxygen utilization. After the invention of Luft disease in 1962, scientists found more of this kind of mitochodrial genetic diseases. When the genetic abnormalities in the mitochondria seen that leads to alterations in a membrane transport systems, electron transport system, in enzymes and RNA (ribonucleic acids). The genetic diseases in the mitochondrial mainly caused due to the sudden change of nuclear DNA as well as mitochondrial DNA.

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About 70-80% of people are suffering from this physical complaint known as back pain. Spinal cord is very essential for sitting, standing and walking and these areas are very sensitive to pain. A slight pressure in the spinal nerves can cause a huge amount of pain in the back. Back pain is basically a pain which can be experienced in the upper middle or lower back of our body. This back pain will also reflect more to the hips and legs. Back pain can be occurred if any of the bones, nerves, muscles or joints has even a slightest of problem.

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The end of the menstruation cycle is known as menopause and Menopause is not a disorder. Hormone replacement therapy is a treatment used to treat menopause. Pre-menopause and irregular periods are mostly seen for a year in many women. Menopause is cannot predict when it is beginning, but it will complete when no periods in a year. Menstruating cycle stops at the age of fifty mostly 80 out of 1000 women stop menstruating. Cycle at this age. There is no correct calculation for the beginnings of the ovaries in menopause. In smokers women’s the menopause be occur lately.

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Dietary intake of calcium is important to all ages. Osteoporosis is a disease caused due to calcium deficiency in the diet its mostly seen in children. Osteomalacia is seen in elderly people due to their deficiency in their dietary intake of calcium in their diet.  Because of calcium deficiency the blood contains low-level of calcium results in nervous irritable, muscle cramps, demineralization of bones, tooth decay. Calcium in blood plays an important role in contraction of muscle, production of milk, blood clotting and secretion of hormones. Hypocalcaemia is a deficiency cause because of deficiency in the metabolism of calcium. Painful muscles aches are because of dietary deficiency of calcium.

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Tooth whitening is also known as tooth bleaching. Most people in the world strongly think that whitening of  Tooth brings an attraction to their smile. Major causes for teeth darkening are due to tobacco, bacterial pigments and food substances. The carbamide peroxide or hydrogen peroxide is an artificial oxidizing agent used for tooth whitening. The artificial tooth whitening will remain upto 6 to 8 years. If you are a change smoker or having habit of drinking tea or coffee the artificial tooth whitening remains for one year or less.

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Image guided radiotherapy is a rising tool for treating cancer

The cancer is raising one of the largest killer diseases in the worldwide. The elderly people are seemed mostly affected by the cancer than the children in the developed countries. There are many tools that are available for treatment of cancer like CT-scan, PET scan and MRI scans which you have already known. Now the image guided radiotherapy is a rising tool for treating cancer. The advantage of using image guided radiotherapy is found accurately cancer-affected area.

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Cancer occurs in the pharynx or any part of the neck area knows as oral cancer. The oral cancer is more dangerous than breast cancer, skin cancer and lung cancer. Smoking and taking alcohol are the major causes of oral cancer. Oral cancer is mostly diagnosed above the age 60. Oral cancer is seen mostly in men than in women. Oral cancer is preventable if they detected early.

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The cancer is the second largest killer disease in the worldwide. The incidence of cancer increases as age advance. Above 60 ages more than 70 percent of the new cases occurring. Chemicals carcinogens cause about 80 percent of the human cancers. Children’s and elderly people is affected by cancer in the developing countries and population is affected by cancer in the developed countries. In USA about 90 percent of cancer deaths are due to tobacco, pollution, occupation, alcohol and diet. 20 percent of the deaths in America are due to cancer. 50 percent of the newly diagnosed cancer occurs in the major organs such as skins, lungs, colon and rectum, breast, prostrate and ulcers.

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Overview

Hypercholesterolemia is associated with atherosclerosis and coronary heart diseases. Consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids and fiber decreases cholesterol in circulation. Taking lovastatin, cholestyramine, compactin, and clofibratre reduce the plasma cholesterol level. An increase in the plasma cholesterol is known as Hypercholesterolemia. The Hypercholesterolemia is seen in many disorders. Such as diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism (myxoedema), nephritic syndrome.

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Diet tips for osteoporosis

Nowadays for complex biological problems we face in making simple dietary recommendations. To prevent osteoporosis in older women they should take calcium rich diets. The bone density is maximum between the age 10 to 35 years is the most important for reducing the risk of osteoporosis. This is because of rich calcium intake and doing exercise. American woman during the menopause consume less calcium because of this they have a lesser quantity of dense bones.

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Obesity is an abnormal increase in body weight due to excessive fat deposition. Overeating, lack of exercise and genetic predisposition play a significant role in the development of obesity. Nutritional basisMen and women are considered as obese, when their weight due to fat in adipose tissue exceeds more than 20% and 25% of the body weight obesity is basically a disorder of excess calorie intake, in simple words overeating. It has to be remembered that every 7 calories of excess consumption leads to 1g fat deposits and increase in body weight. Overeating - coupled with lack of physical exercise – contribute to obesity.

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 A newborn infant needs many nutrients due to their rapid growth. The fat-soluble vitamins E and K do not pass through placental membrane and storage of tissues are seen to be low in the newborn infants. The gastrointestinal tract not absorbed the vitamin E and K this may leads to malabsorption. The gastrointestinal tracts in the newborn infants have not developed well. Besides the gastrointestinal tract becomes sterile and the vitamins k by intestinal flora. The nutritional risk of newborn infants is much higher because the gastrointestinal tract in the baby is still growing.

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The low fats and high complex carbohydrates and fiber diets is a good diets for diabetic patients. The low fats diet reduced the heart diseases and hyperlipidemia in diabetic patients. The blood sugar level can be control by taking high-fiber content diet. Taking high fiber and carbohydrate diet can significantly reduce the weight because they contain low caloric value of food. Weight reduction also controls the type II diabetes mellitus.

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Kwashiorkor is a protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) or protein-calorie malnutrition (PCM) is the most common nutritional disorder of the developing countries. Protein-energy malnutrition is widely prevalent in the infants and preschool children. Kwashiorkor was first introduced by the man cicely Williams in mid 20^th Century for the people who are suffering from nutritional disorder. The definition of Kwashiorkor means the children who are suffering from sickness and child who are deposed.

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Congenital heart diseases

A congenital heart disease affects 10 out of 1000 children in the country. In early they need surgical treatment. Recently nonsurgical treatments are available.

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Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder, associated with hyperglycemia affecting the population worldwide. Plasma glucose levels were determined in type II diabetes, although inflammatory or degenerative changes in salivary glands have been shown in animal models. Recently salivary enzymes levels were studied in type II diabetes mellitus in human beigns.

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Our heart is one of the powerful organ in our human body. Heart plays an important role, Man can even sleep but heart never sleeps it works throughout the day without stopping. We can classify heart attack symptoms briefly and it is not the same for all, Studies say heart attack symptoms will vary from men to women.

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Food allergy  Don’t take it lighter

Food is an important ingredient no one in the world can live without food. Some people like food substance prepared at home only. Some may go out for a change and eat food in restaurants, clubs. But a food allergy can happen at any point of time.

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Aging skin is not a problem Tips to preserve a Perfect Healthy skin

Skin is also an important ingredient of our body, skin does help us lot of by protecting us from the sunlight rays keeping a perfect and healthy skin is always important duty for everybody.

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What is an Ovarian cysts?

Speaking a cyst is nothing but a pack of fluid which stays in one portion of the body. Cyst can present in any parts of the body. If you want to know about Ovarian cysts, its also like a pack of fluid in the ovary. In general in an ovary there can be many cysts form. The most common cysts is known as Ovarian cysts.

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Abatacept is a medicine which is used for severe rheumatoid pain. Its called as Abatacept Orencia. In united states it is normally used to treat rheumatoid Arthritis
About Abatacept
Abatacept is a medicine which is used to cure severe rheumatoid pain. This medicine is commonly used in United states of America. Abatacept was approved by the food and administration department abatacept(orencia) in the year 2005 for people especially suffering from severe rheumatoid arthritis. Read complete articles »

Introduction

The function of the heart is to maintain a constant circulation of blood throughout the body. This is achieved by rhythmic contraction of its muscle. Cardiac cycle is the sequence of events, which occur in the heart during a single beat. The rate of heart is 72 beats per minute. So the time taken for one beat is 0.8 second. So the sequence of events occur every 0.8 second. The cardiac cycle occurs in two phases they are systole and diastole. The systole means a period of contraction and diastole means a period of relaxation.

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By John Moore

Remedies For A Smoother Skin

Do you have acne ? Acne maybe the scourge of adolescent years, but it can follow people into middle age and beyond. Acne is really a catchall term for a variety of symptoms such as pimples, whiteheads, and blackheads. It’s a condition where the pores of skin become clogged and the person gets inflamed and non-inflamed lesions. Read complete articles »

7 Ways to Lose weight without Dieting

By Jane Thurnell-Read

1. When you have finished your meal, say an affirmation out loud several times. Here’s some suggestions: “I’ve now finished eating till lunch/dinner/6.00 pm.” (whatever is suitable given the circumstances) or “I have eaten enough food to last me till ….” or “I’m full and do not need to eat till …” Experiment to find the format that’s right for you, and then say it with conviction several times preferably out loud at the end of the meal. Read complete articles »