What is UTO ?(urinary tract obstruction)
Luto happens when there is a partial or complete obstruction in the area of urinary tract , the area between kidney to the urethra. If this happen it may result in severe kidney damage.
Systolic murmur is produced in the following conditions
Incompetence of Atrioventricular Valves
When the atrioventricular valves become weak, these valves cannot close completely. This causes regurgitation of blood from ventricles to the atria during ventricular systole producing the murmur. It is a harsh blowing sound with high frequency.
Maintaining the reading frame during translation is central to the accuracy and fidelity of translation. However, many retroviruses, including HIV, the human immunodeficiency virus that causes AIDS, take advantage of mRNA slippage and a change in reading frame to generate different proteins from the same message.
In the past, evolutionary studies of species have depended soley on anatomical changes observed in fossil records and on carbon dating. More recently, these studies are being suported by the molecular analysis of the sequence and size of selected genes or whole DNA molecules. Evolutionary altertions of a selected DNA molecule from different species can […]
In patients with malignant hyperthermia, a variety of agents, especially, the widely used general anesthetic halothane, will produce a dramatic rise in body temperature, metabolic and respiratory acidosis, hyperkalemia, and muscle rigidity. This genetic abnormality occurs in about 1 in 15,000 children and 1 in 50,000-100,000 older peoples. It is dominantly inherited. Death may result […]
Cytochrome P450 forms play a major role in estrogen synthesis. During pregnancy, a unique interaction among cytochrome P450 forms in different organs is needed in order to synthesize the large quantities that are required. Hormone production increases dramatically during pregnancy and, at term, the pregnant woman produces 15-20mg of estradiol, 50-100 mg of estriol, and […]
The amount of energy required for any individual varies directly with the degree of activity and environmental conditions, but the rate of energy production in an individual by its over-all cellular metabolism is more or less constant under some standard conditions “basal conditions” and is known as “basal metabolism”.
In worldwide terms nutritional disorders are responsible for much morbidity and mortality. The three main categories of nutritional disorders are under nutrition (which is dominated by insufficient food energy), producing the features of starvation, malnutrition, which is deficiency, of one or more of the essential nutrients; and obesity, which is excessive positive energy balance. Disease […]
I-cell disease (mucolipidosis 2) and pseudo-Hurler polydystrophy (mucolipidosis 3) are related diseases that arise from defects in Lysosomal enzyme targeting because of a deficiency in the enzyme that transfers N-acetyglucosamine phosphate to the high-mannose type oligosaccharides of proteins destined for the lysosome.
For the right diagnosis of a particular disease, it is always better to estimate a few (three or more) serum enzymes, instead of a single enzyme. Examples of enzyme patterns in important diseases are given here.
Although nitric oxide is essential in tumoricidal and bactericidal functions of macrophages, overproduction of nitric oxide has been implicated in septic/cytokine-induced circulatory shock in humans through the activation of guanylate cyclase. This mechanism is responsible for profound hypotension in postoperative patients whose recovery is complicated by bacterial infections that produce endotoxins. Hypotension in these patients […]
Stress tests, or graded exercise tests, are conducted primarily to aid in diagnosing or quantifying heart or lung disease and to evaluate the functional capacity asymptomatic individuals. The tests are usually given on motorized treadmills or bicycle ergometers (stationary, variable-resistance bicycles). Workload intensity (how hard the subject is working) is adjusted by progressively increasing the […]
A group of cells having the same origin, similar shape and specific or common generalized function is known as a tissue. The tissues are classified into four major groups. They are epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue, nervous tissue. These four groups of tissues are called elementary tissues.
Many authorities recommend screening asymptomatic individuals by measuring plasma cholesterol. A level less than 200 mg% is considered desirable, and a level over 240 mg% requires lipoprotein analysis, especially determination of LDL cholesterol. Reduction of LDL cholesterol depends on dietary restriction of cholesterol to less than 300mg day -1, of calories to attain ideal body […]
Traditional laboratory tests for the diagnosis of genetic diseases are mostly based on the estimation of metabolites and/or enzymes. This is usually done after the onset of symptoms.
The laboratory tests based on DNA analysis can specifically diagnose the inherited diseases at the genetic level. DNA-based tests are useful to discover, well in advance, whether the […]
The use of DNA analysis is a novel and revolutionary approach for specifically identifying the disease-causing pathogenic organisms. This is in contrast to the traditional methods of disease diagnosis by detection of enzymes, antibodies etc., besides the microscopic examination of pathogens. Although at present not in widespread use, DNA analysis may soon take over the […]
Hyperlipidemias are disorders of the rates of synthesis or clearance of lipoproteins from the bloodstream. Usually they are detected by measuring plasma triacylglycerol and cholesterol and are classified on the basis of which class of lipoproteins is elevated.
In general, gene therapy is carried out by introducing a therapeutic gene to produce the defective or the lacking protein. But there are certain disorders (cancer, viral and parasitic infections, and inflammatory diseases) which result in an overproduction of certain normal proteins. It is possible to treat these diseases by blocking transcription using a single-stranded […]
It is expected that the sequencing of human genome and the genomes of other organisms will dramatically change our understanding and perceptions of biology and medicine. Some of the benefits of human genome project are given.
The most important features of a DNA molecule are the nucleotide sequences, and the identification of genes and their activities. Since 1920, scientists have been working to determine the sequences of pieces of DNA. This was further extended for the complete sequence determination of genome of certain lower organism’s example plasmid pBR 322 in 1979. […]
Both pig (porcine) and cow (bovine) insulin are commonly used in the treatment of human diabetics. Because of the differences in amino acid sequence from the human insulin, some diabetic individuals will have an initial allergic response to the injected insulin as their immunological system recognizes the insulin as foreign, or develop an insulin resistance […]
Topoisomerases are emerging as important targets of antimicrobial and antineoplastic agents. These agents share a common principal mechanism of action by interfering with the enzyme-catalyzed rejoining of DNA strands, in effect inhibiting one of two substeps in the action of Topoisomerases. Therefore topoisomerase medicines do not inhibit overall activity of the enzyme, as is the […]
The presence of reiterated three-base-pair DNA sequences has been noted in a number of human genetic diseases including fragile X syndrome, myotonic dystrophy, X-linked spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (Kennedy’s syndrome), spinocerebellar ataxia, and Huntington’s disease. These diseases are associated with expansion of certain triplet nucleotide repeats that appear to be over represented in the […]
Telomerase, the ends of linear Eukaryotic chromosomes, are critical for maintaining the stability of the genome. Telomeres are progressively shortened during each cycle of cell division. Upon reaching a critical length, programmed cell death (apoptosis) occurs. Ribonucleoprotein Telomerase acts to maintain or lengthen the Telomeres but is not active in normal somatic cells. Telomerase activity […]
A number of diseases result from abnormalities in lipid metabolism. They are due to genetic defects affecting one of the enzymes necessary for their catabolism.
Acyl CoA dehydrogenase deficiency:
The most common genetic defect in lipid metabolism is an acyl CoA dehydrogenase deficiency. There are four different isoenzymes of acyl CoA dehydrogenase and each acts on fatty […]
Abnormal amounts of glycogen are deposited in various diseases due to inherited deficiencies of the enzymes involved in glycogen metabolism. In addition to this they produce deleterious effects on the growth and well being of the individual. The details of different types of glycogen storage diseases are given below:
Hexokinase (HK) deficiency:
Hexokinase catalyses the first chemical reaction in glycolysis and it exits as isoenzymes. A genetic defect of HK leads to low concentrations of glycolytic intermediates, including 1,3-BPG, the precursor of 2,3-BPG, which binds to hemoglobin and lowers its affinity for oxygen. This effect allows hemoglobin to release oxygen normally in tissue capillaries. Patients […]
Hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin (HPFH) is a group of conditions in which fetal hemoglobin synthesis is not turned off with development but continues into older stage. The homozygous form of the disease is extremely uncommon, being characterized by changes in red blood cells similar to those found in heterozygous beta thalassemia. HPFH, in either […]
The local three-dimensional structure of DNA is important in interactions with proteins involved in repair, transcription, recombination, and chromatin condensation. Recently, it has been proposed that antibiotics can induce formation of DNA structures that can recruit these proteins with cytotoxic results. The best-studied example of this phenomenon is the antitumor medicine cisplation, a tetra coordinate […]
With pending completion of the human genome project, a wealth of genetic information is rapidly becoming available. Application of this knowledge to medicine requires development of new techniques to monitor gene expression and rapidly evaluate genes for mutations and other sequence variations. Oligonucleotide arrays have shown great promise for these applications. Such arrays consist of […]
Peroxisomes are responsible for a number of important metabolic reactions, including synthesis of glycerol ethers, shortening very-long-chain fatty acids so that mitochondrial can completely oxidize them, and oxidation of the side chain of cholesterol needed for bile acids synthesis.
Clinical correlation
Human Lysosomal acid lipase (hLAL) hydrolyzes triacylglycerol to free fatty acids and glycerol, and cholesteryl esters to free cholesterol and fatty acids. It is a critical enzyme in cholesterol metabolism, serving to make available free cholesterol for the needs of cells. Cholesteryl ester storage disease (CESD) and Wolman’s disease are two distinct phenotypic forms […]
Catabolism of purines, nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds found in nucleic acids, leads to formation of uric acid, which is excreted in urine normally. Gout is an abnormality in which uric acid is produced in excess, leading to an increase of uric acid in blood and deposition of urate crystals in joints.
Introduction
Traditional procedures of vaccination have used purified components of an infectious organism, dead or attenuated intact cells or viruses, to provide individuals with active immunity by eliciting production of specific antibodies. Many have been successful in providing protection against diseases such as polio, smallpox, whooping cough, typhoid fever, and diphtheria.
Apoptosis: programmed cell death
Eukaryotic cells have genetically regulated mechanisms for programmed cell death, termed apoptosis. Programmed cell death is important during embryogenesis and throughout older life and occurs when a cell has fulfilled its biological function. It is distinct from necrotic death of a cell caused by injury due to radiation or anoxia. Initiation of […]
Introduction
The endocrine system consists of ductless glands, which secrete hormones. The hormones are directly poured into circulation without the help of a duct. Hormone is the secretion of an endocrine gland, which is transported to a site distant from its origin where it produces it action.
Introduction
Lymphatic system is a closed system of lymph channels or lymph vessels through which lymph flows. It is a one-way system and allows the lymph flow from tissue spaces towards the blood.
Normal blood volume
The total amount of blood present in the circulatory system, blood reservoirs, organs and tissues together constitute blood volume. In a normal young healthy person male weighing about 70 kg, the blood volume is about 5 liters. It is about 7% of total body weight. It ranges between 6 and 8% of body […]
Introduction
Platelets or thrombocytes are small colourless, nonnucleated and moderately refractive bodies. Theses formed elements of blood are considered to be the fragments of cytoplasm. Their diameter is 2.5 microns and the volume is 7.5 cubic microns. Normally the platelets are spherical or rod shaped and become oval or disc shaped when inactivated. Sometimes, the platelets […]
Structure of spleen
Spleen is the largest lymphoid organ in the body and it is highly vascular. It is situated in left hypochondrial region. An outer serous coat and an inner fibro muscular capsule cover the spleen. From the capsule, the trabeculae and trabecular network arise. All the three structures capsule, trabeculae and trabecular network contain […]
Introduction
Removal of waste materials and toxic substances and restoration of normal volume and composition of body fluid by means of an artificial kidney is called dialysis or hemodialysis.
Artificial Kidney
Severe dysfunction of kidney is treated by dialysis of patient’s blood. A machine called artificial kidney carries out dialysis. The artificial kidney is used in acute renal […]
Introduction
Diuretics are the substances, which enhance the output of urine. These substance increase excretion of water, sodium and chloride through urine. The diuretics agents increase the urine formation by influencing any of the processes involved in urine formation.
Lactation refers to synthesis, secretion and ejection of milk. It consists of two processes milk secretion and milk ejection.
Milk secretion
Synthesis of milk by alveolar epithelium and its passage through the duct system is called milk secretion. This process has two phases initiation of milk secretion or lactogenesis and maintenance of milk secretion or galactopoiesis.
Development of mammary glands during pregnancy
During pregnancy, the mammary glands enlarge to a great extent and, there are marked changes in structure. During first half of pregnancy, the duct system develops further with appearance of many new alveoli. The gland secretes no milk now. During the second half, there is enormous growth of glandular tissues […]
Introduction
The presence of hCG can be determined by using immunological techniques. The immunological tests are based on double antigen antibody reaction. The most commonly performed immunological test is known as Gravindes test.
Introduction
The pregnancy test is a test to determine the presence of the human chorionic gonadotropin hormone in the urine of woman suspected for pregnancy. Biological tests are available to test the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin hormone in the urine of the pregnant woman.
Introduction
The celiac disease is a disease when the mucous membrane lining in small intestine is slightly damaged this is due to intake of oats, wheat, barley, and rye. The celiac disease is caused mainly due to the intolerance of gluten. This leads to lack of nutrients absorption results in human growth failure. Celiac disease is […]
Cord blood is a human Blood present in the blood vessels at the time of delivery .The blood vessels contain pair of umbilical arteries and one umbilical vein. The blood between the foetus and placenta is carried by these blood vessels. The umbilical cord blood is rich in haematopoietic stem cells. The cord blood is […]
In Christmas the body gets extra amounts of fats and lifestyle becomes unhealthy. By doing physical exercise routinely day by day, we can improve your overall health. If you are doing the exercise five times in a week before Christmas you can do the exercise three times per week. Drinking, consumption of alcohol, and smoking […]
About 70-80% of people are suffering from this physical complaint known as back pain. Spinal cord is very essential for sitting, standing and walking and these areas are very sensitive to pain. A slight pressure in the spinal nerves can cause a huge amount of pain in the back. Back pain is basically a pain […]
The end of the menstruation cycle is known as menopause and Menopause is not a disorder. Hormone replacement therapy is a treatment used to treat menopause. Pre-menopause and irregular periods are mostly seen for a year in many women. Menopause is cannot predict when it is beginning, but it will complete when no periods […]
Tooth whitening is also known as tooth bleaching. Most people in the world strongly think that whitening of Tooth brings an attraction to their smile. Major causes for teeth darkening are due to tobacco, bacterial pigments and food substances. The carbamide peroxide or hydrogen peroxide is an artificial oxidizing agent used for tooth whitening. The artificial tooth […]
Image guided radiotherapy is a rising tool for treating cancer
The cancer is raising one of the largest killer diseases in the worldwide. The elderly people are seemed mostly affected by the cancer than the children in the developed countries. There are many tools that are available for treatment of cancer like CT-scan, PET scan and […]
Overview
Hypercholesterolemia is associated with atherosclerosis and coronary heart diseases. Consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids and fiber decreases cholesterol in circulation. Taking lovastatin, cholestyramine, compactin, and clofibratre reduce the plasma cholesterol level. An increase in the plasma cholesterol is known as Hypercholesterolemia. The Hypercholesterolemia is seen in many disorders. Such as diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism (myxoedema), nephritic […]
Diet tips for osteoporosis
Nowadays for complex biological problems we face in making simple dietary recommendations. To prevent osteoporosis in older women they should take calcium rich diets. The bone density is maximum between the age 10 to 35 years is the most important for reducing the risk of osteoporosis. This is because of rich calcium […]
A newborn infant needs many nutrients due to their rapid growth. The fat-soluble vitamins E and K do not pass through placental membrane and storage of tissues are seen to be low in the newborn infants. The gastrointestinal tract not absorbed the vitamin E and K this may leads to malabsorption. The gastrointestinal tracts in […]
The low fats and high complex carbohydrates and fiber diets is a good diets for diabetic patients. The low fats diet reduced the heart diseases and hyperlipidemia in diabetic patients. The blood sugar level can be control by taking high-fiber content diet. Taking high fiber and carbohydrate diet can significantly reduce the weight because they […]
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder, associated with hyperglycemia affecting the population worldwide. Plasma glucose levels were determined in type II diabetes, although inflammatory or degenerative changes in salivary glands have been shown in animal models. Recently salivary enzymes levels were studied in type II diabetes mellitus in human beigns.
Our heart is one of the powerful organ in our human body. Heart plays an important role, Man can even sleep but heart never sleeps it works throughout the day without stopping. We can classify heart attack symptoms briefly and it is not the same for all, Studies say heart attack symptoms will vary from […]
Food allergy Don’t take it lighter
Food is an important ingredient no one in the world can live without food. Some people like food substance prepared at home only. Some may go out for a change and eat food in restaurants, clubs. But a food allergy can happen at any point of time.
What is an Ovarian cysts?
Speaking a cyst is nothing but a pack of fluid which stays in one portion of the body. Cyst can present in any parts of the body. If you want to know about Ovarian cysts, its also like a pack of fluid in the ovary. In general in an ovary there […]
Introduction
The function of the heart is to maintain a constant circulation of blood throughout the body. This is achieved by rhythmic contraction of its muscle. Cardiac cycle is the sequence of events, which occur in the heart during a single beat. The rate of heart is 72 beats per minute. So the time taken for […]
By John Moore
Remedies For A Smoother Skin
Do you have acne ? Acne maybe the scourge of adolescent years, but it can follow people into middle age and beyond. Acne is really a catchall term for a variety of symptoms such as pimples, whiteheads, and blackheads. It’s a condition where the pores of skin become clogged […]
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